The non-traditional setting of distance education (DE) presents great challenges, particularly with regard to student motivation. The greatest obstacle facing DE instructors is the limited amount of time to make person connections. Since many motivational strategies rely upon these personal connections, the instructor’s ability to engage is significantly reduced. The increased number of distance learning course now available compounds this further. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 63.4 percent of all colleges and universities in the US offer distance-learning courses. Characterized by its strength of student-centered tasks and activities, DE demands a high degree of independence and initiative from its participants. Students in the virtual classroom, whether the design of the course is synchronous or asynchronous in nature, are entrusted with the responsibility of working independently as well as collectively with their classmates. Ownership for ones learning and the cooperative exchange of knowledge is the cornerstone of DE principles.
A great amount of responsibility is thrust upon the student, but to create and manage such a setting can be even more challenging to the instructor-facilitator. Responsibility and accountability are the major underpinnings of a virtual classroom. Students and instructors alike must mutually share them. The likelihood for the success of the DE course and ultimately the level of achievement of the students participating hinges upon the motivational factors that drive learning in this unique environment.
Careful consideration must be given to these motivational factors and they are the foundations in the planning and design of online learning. This can be particularly difficult since the instructor’s efforts quite often must be done from a distance (Lamb, et al., 1999). First, one must understand and answer the question, ‘What drives student achievement and investment into their learning?’ Dr. Paul R. Kleinginna of the University of Miami (Kleinginna et al., 1981) defines motivation as, “…an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction” (pg. 264).
There are two paradigms to engage students that an instructor-facilitator encounters when considering student motivation for the online environment. One strategy reasons that extrinsic motivators, which are imparted through the context or structure of a classroom, are of the utmost importance. The other strategy emphasizes intrinsic, personal motivators. When developing and structuring a DE learning environment, instructors must take into account both of these realms. He or she should make provisions to include an array of motivational strategies. This will maximize the possibilities of enhancing engagement in a diverse and differentiated learning environment.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation derives exclusively from outside the individual. External forces, namely the instructor-facilitator and the structure of the course, dictate the parameters and mandates that govern the students participating in the program of study. Students must adhere to designated course guidelines, objectives, a schedule of assignments and due dates, and a grading policy. Incentives are given to those that fulfill or exceed their work-participation obligations, but there are also penalties for unsatisfactory performance or non-compliance. A fair and clear set of expectations will allow the instructor-facilitator to manages his online classroom. Furthermore, it will engrain in students a positive attitude towards their own learning. In essence the instructor-facilitator has established a culture of self-efficacy in this challenging environment.
Thoroughly explaining course expectations, rewarding good behaviors and performance, and displaying a caring demeanor toward students serve as good extrinsic motivators. A clear and enthusiastic instructor-facilitator leads to a better learning experience for students. In his online article, “Some Ideas for Motivating Students,” Robert Harris, the noted educator and writer, (Harris, 1991) points out that, “Recent research shows that many students do poorly on assignments or in participation because they do not understand what to do or why they should do it.” (¶ 1) Knowing what is expected and connecting it with appropriate outcomes brings intelligible order and establishes a comfort zone of duties. It is important to clarify course requirements and to provide concise assignments and assessments. Additionally, the instructor-facilitator needs to identify due dates, encourage student generated questions and provide feedback that points out the learner’s control on success (Lamb, et al., 1999). Setting realistic performance goals for students and providing them with ideas on how to meet these goals leads to intrinsic gains. With this in mind, instructors should be as precise as possible in fashioning a course syllabus and calendar. They should encourage students to frequent a course web page, which promotes an organized student mindset. Additionally, instructors-facilitators should provide multiple modes of communication such as e-mail, phone numbers, and message board postings to promote instructor/student and student/student exchange.
Extrinsic rewards provide incentives and reinforcement of desirable behaviors and participation. Generally there are two types of rewards earned by students, good grades and positive feedback. When interest levels are low or a student lacks background in a subject area, motivation can be maintained with the necessity to fulfill educational requirements or a passing grade. With the acquisition of extrinsic rewards, it is possible to develop and produce intrinsic motivation (Harris, 1991). Everyone likes to receive praise and acknowledgement for a job done well. A taste of something pleasant can evoke repeated attempts of the desired behaviors. Ultimately, a student can gain personal satisfaction, intrinsically and replace the need for extrinsic rewards. According to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of learning and behavior, positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward (Van Wagner, 2009).
Positive, constructive feedback is a very important factor to promote this type of conditioning. Posting feedback provides a quick and informative portal to formulate learning. In addition, students participating on a discussion board can help each other in ways that are very different from help received by the instructor-facilitator. Student to student exchange relaxes the learning environment so that feedback can be well received. Also, students can reinforce each other positively by offering informal kudos in recognition of helpful and exceptional reply backs. Facilitators should encourage this positive form of acknowledgment among their students (Lamb et al., 1999). The aforementioned actions lead to a sense of accomplishment, and are incentives for further positive student behaviors thus provoking higher levels of participation. In this sense, the instructor-facilitator has extrinsically provided motivation so that the correct environs are established, now intrinsic values may be forged.
Along with providing and maintaining the proper online environment an instructor-facilitator need to develop a positive rapport. This will support a more nurtured learning environment, which is more prone to fostering motivation. The instructor-facilitator sets the precedence and models behavior for students. Simply, become the learner that you want the students to become. Harris (1991) states, “students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear to be human and caring.” (¶ 3) In an online setting, opportunities to interact in a more personably manner may be more challenging that the traditional setting. Lamb (1999) suggests the following ways of developing a meaningful rapport by using ongoing encouragement:
• Establish ongoing communication with your class through announcements or personal e-mails
• Incorporate text in your course materials that convey the idea that course materials will be useful
• Use humor and light-hearted approaches to increase comfort
• Ask student to enjoy the freedom of online course environment
• Provide specific, quick, feedback, encouragement and grading
• Be flexible enough to accommodate emergencies and specific problems
• Encourage student questioning and sharing of concerns
Praise is an important way to improve student motivation. But how should instructors handle situations that arise where criticism is necessary? Dr. Linda Nilson, professor of education at Clemson University, advises caution in her book entitled Teaching at it Best; she suggests that one should “…be free with praise and constructive in criticism; offer non-judgmental feedback on students’ work; stress opportunities to improve; look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.” (pg. 43)
Above all, knowing students at a personal level and gaining their trust and respect will promote positive learning experience and the development of mutual understanding. One way to develop a “social presence” at a distance between instructor-facilitator is to provide a student homepage area within a teacher-student only accessible course web site (Palloff et al., 2007). Additionally, students may develop a sense of “social presence” amongst themselves in a similar context. Student profiles can yield carefully controlled information about members of the class as well as photographs or an image that represents them. Furthermore, these profiles may contain links to more personal student web pages that allow peers to form and share a virtual presence with one another and to humanize and promote personal connections amongst each other.
On the first day of class, instructors-facilitators can utilize on line icebreaker activities to introduce one another and foster positive feelings about the subject to be studied. This creates an online environment where students and their facilitator-instructor can interact with one another in a friendly, respectable manner. The cohesive banter will only boost motivation to participate and enjoy their online course experience.
Intrinsic Motivation:
When the enticement to learn is drawn from within an individual, it is referred to as intrinsic motivation. Simply said, we choose to learn about things we find interesting or what we would like to know more about. DeLong and Winter (2002) characterize intrinsic motivators to include, “…fascination with the subject, a sense of its relevance to life and the world, a sense of accomplishment in mastering it, and a sense of calling to it.” (pg. 163) When designing an online course of study, instructors must consider a range of topics and activities that will appeal to the varying interests of their students. Making provisions to promote intrinsic motivation in student learning will require challenging students to manage and control their own learning.
Incorporating course content that draws curiosity and offers choices through a variety of stimulating activities can support intrinsic motivation. Offering choices to students allows for personal preferential decisions, which may then ultimately accompany a sense of ownership and control (Theroux, 1994). Students are more likely to assume responsibility for their learning when they have choices available, rather than subscribing to a set train of thought or doctrine by the instructor-facilitator. An essential part of intrinsic motivation is to understand the varying abilities f the students in the online environment. All students can acquire the same knowledge, but through divergent avenues of acquisition. This is referred to as differentiated instruction.
What options or variations in task or methodology can instructors make available to their students? Theroux (1994) recommends the use of alternative topics (themes or sub-topics students may identify with), process (learning activities embedded with acquired concepts) or product ideas (form of demonstration exhibiting mastery of concepts). Making available choices in instruction, processing and assessment truly diversifies the learning experience. That is, accentuating the talents and interests of students provides more opportunities for ownership and responsibility in learning.
Engaging students in a challenging and thought-provoking context has the potential to spark interest and ignite curiosity. Theroux (1994) urges teachers to “encourage students to take intellectual risks.” (¶ 6) This can be particularly attractive to students that want more from themselves or tend get bored easily. Students need the opportunity to take on new challenging vistas and to be placed in a position of personal control. In terms of educational vehicles for challenging strategies, Lamb (1999) advocates for learner engagement by:
• Appealing to student life experiences
• Applying course content to real-world situations
• Allowing student to varied ways in which to share their understandings (forms of projects)
• Incorporating higher-ordered thinking and interactive features that involve learners in practice, reflective thinking, and problem-solving
These approaches can provide a path leading to creative products that accompany their finds or new understandings as well as the skill of managing their own learning. In challenging students with engaging assignments and tasks, it gives students the opportunity to exercise a power of control and to discover the experience of applying a concerted effort rendering a satisfying success. Having control and investment in ones own learning bestows a high degree of intrinsic motivations. Simply put, there is satisfaction in a job well done.
Conclusion:
Effective planning, design and implementation of motivational strategies can significantly impact the quality of active student learning and participation in distance educational settings. Motivating students is an ongoing challenge for educators. In general, students are motivated in 3 different ways, by rewards, by interest and others by a desire to avoid failure. Thoroux (1994) points out that “any one technique may not be appropriate for all students at the same time nor effective for even one student for extended periods of time.” (¶ 10)
It should be noted that every learner has their own unique set of intrinsically motivating factors. Perhaps Dr. Mancia Anguiita, noted DE learning author (2007), says it best when she says, “Not everyone is intrinsically motivated towards the same subjects or tasks, nor does everything motivate everyone to the same extent; therefore, it is important to stimulate extrinsic motivation.” (pg. 373) Therefore, wise planning will include provisions to establish and maintain both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational strategies in order to meet the varying needs that drive student achievement and participation.
References:
Anguita, Mancia and Baldomero-Fernandez Javier F. (2007,November). Software Optimization for Improving Student Motivation in a Computer Architecture Course. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 50 (4), 373-378. Retrieved July 2, 2009, from IEEE Transactions on Education database
DeLong, Matt., Winter, Dale. Learning to Teaching and Teaching to Learn Mathematics: Resources for Professional Development, Mathematical Association of America, 2002, page 163.
Harris, Robert (1991, March 2). Some Ideas for Motivating Students. Retrieved July 1, 2009, from Virtual Salt Web site: http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981a). A categorized list of motivation definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 263-291.
Nilson, Linda. Teaching At Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors, 2nd edition, Anker Publishing, 2003, Pages 41-44.
Palloff, Rena M., Pratt, Keith. (2007). Building Online Learning Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pages 99-101.
Student Motivation in Distance Education
Introduction:
The non-traditional setting of distance education (DE) presents great challenges, particularly with regard to student motivation. The greatest obstacle facing DE instructors is the limited amount of time to make person connections. Since many motivational strategies rely upon these personal connections, the instructor’s ability to engage is significantly reduced. The increased number of distance learning course now available compounds this further. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 63.4 percent of all colleges and universities in the US offer distance-learning courses. Characterized by its strength of student-centered tasks and activities, DE demands a high degree of independence and initiative from its participants. Students in the virtual classroom, whether the design of the course is synchronous or asynchronous in nature, are entrusted with the responsibility of working independently as well as collectively with their classmates. Ownership for ones learning and the cooperative exchange of knowledge is the cornerstone of DE principles.
A great amount of responsibility is thrust upon the student, but to create and manage such a setting can be even more challenging to the instructor-facilitator. Responsibility and accountability are the major underpinnings of a virtual classroom. Students and instructors alike must mutually share them. The likelihood for the success of the DE course and ultimately the level of achievement of the students participating hinges upon the motivational factors that drive learning in this unique environment.
Careful consideration must be given to these motivational factors and they are the foundations in the planning and design of online learning. This can be particularly difficult since the instructor’s efforts quite often must be done from a distance (Lamb, et al., 1999). First, one must understand and answer the question, ‘What drives student achievement and investment into their learning?’ Dr. Paul R. Kleinginna of the University of Miami (Kleinginna et al., 1981) defines motivation as, “…an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction” (pg. 264).
There are two paradigms to engage students that an instructor-facilitator encounters when considering student motivation for the online environment. One strategy reasons that extrinsic motivators, which are imparted through the context or structure of a classroom, are of the utmost importance. The other strategy emphasizes intrinsic, personal motivators. When developing and structuring a DE learning environment, instructors must take into account both of these realms. He or she should make provisions to include an array of motivational strategies. This will maximize the possibilities of enhancing engagement in a diverse and differentiated learning environment.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation derives exclusively from outside the individual. External forces, namely the instructor-facilitator and the structure of the course, dictate the parameters and mandates that govern the students participating in the program of study. Students must adhere to designated course guidelines, objectives, a schedule of assignments and due dates, and a grading policy. Incentives are given to those that fulfill or exceed their work-participation obligations, but there are also penalties for unsatisfactory performance or non-compliance. A fair and clear set of expectations will allow the instructor-facilitator to manages his online classroom. Furthermore, it will engrain in students a positive attitude towards their own learning. In essence the instructor-facilitator has established a culture of self-efficacy in this challenging environment.
Thoroughly explaining course expectations, rewarding good behaviors and performance, and displaying a caring demeanor toward students serve as good extrinsic motivators. A clear and enthusiastic instructor-facilitator leads to a better learning experience for students. In his online article, “Some Ideas for Motivating Students,” Robert Harris, the noted educator and writer, (Harris, 1991) points out that, “Recent research shows that many students do poorly on assignments or in participation because they do not understand what to do or why they should do it.” (¶ 1) Knowing what is expected and connecting it with appropriate outcomes brings intelligible order and establishes a comfort zone of duties. It is important to clarify course requirements and to provide concise assignments and assessments. Additionally, the instructor-facilitator needs to identify due dates, encourage student generated questions and provide feedback that points out the learner’s control on success (Lamb, et al., 1999). Setting realistic performance goals for students and providing them with ideas on how to meet these goals leads to intrinsic gains. With this in mind, instructors should be as precise as possible in fashioning a course syllabus and calendar. They should encourage students to frequent a course web page, which promotes an organized student mindset. Additionally, instructors-facilitators should provide multiple modes of communication such as e-mail, phone numbers, and message board postings to promote instructor/student and student/student exchange.
Extrinsic rewards provide incentives and reinforcement of desirable behaviors and participation. Generally there are two types of rewards earned by students, good grades and positive feedback. When interest levels are low or a student lacks background in a subject area, motivation can be maintained with the necessity to fulfill educational requirements or a passing grade. With the acquisition of extrinsic rewards, it is possible to develop and produce intrinsic motivation (Harris, 1991). Everyone likes to receive praise and acknowledgement for a job done well. A taste of something pleasant can evoke repeated attempts of the desired behaviors. Ultimately, a student can gain personal satisfaction, intrinsically and replace the need for extrinsic rewards. According to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of learning and behavior, positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward (Van Wagner, 2009).
Positive, constructive feedback is a very important factor to promote this type of conditioning. Posting feedback provides a quick and informative portal to formulate learning. In addition, students participating on a discussion board can help each other in ways that are very different from help received by the instructor-facilitator. Student to student exchange relaxes the learning environment so that feedback can be well received. Also, students can reinforce each other positively by offering informal kudos in recognition of helpful and exceptional reply backs. Facilitators should encourage this positive form of acknowledgment among their students (Lamb et al., 1999). The aforementioned actions lead to a sense of accomplishment, and are incentives for further positive student behaviors thus provoking higher levels of participation. In this sense, the instructor-facilitator has extrinsically provided motivation so that the correct environs are established, now intrinsic values may be forged.
Along with providing and maintaining the proper online environment an instructor-facilitator need to develop a positive rapport. This will support a more nurtured learning environment, which is more prone to fostering motivation. The instructor-facilitator sets the precedence and models behavior for students. Simply, become the learner that you want the students to become. Harris (1991) states, “students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear to be human and caring.” (¶ 3) In an online setting, opportunities to interact in a more personably manner may be more challenging that the traditional setting. Lamb (1999) suggests the following ways of developing a meaningful rapport by using ongoing encouragement:
• Establish ongoing communication with your class through announcements or personal e-mails
• Incorporate text in your course materials that convey the idea that course materials will be useful
• Use humor and light-hearted approaches to increase comfort
• Ask student to enjoy the freedom of online course environment
• Provide specific, quick, feedback, encouragement and grading
• Be flexible enough to accommodate emergencies and specific problems
• Encourage student questioning and sharing of concerns
Praise is an important way to improve student motivation. But how should instructors handle situations that arise where criticism is necessary? Dr. Linda Nilson, professor of education at Clemson University, advises caution in her book entitled Teaching at it Best; she suggests that one should “…be free with praise and constructive in criticism; offer non-judgmental feedback on students’ work; stress opportunities to improve; look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.” (pg. 43)
Above all, knowing students at a personal level and gaining their trust and respect will promote positive learning experience and the development of mutual understanding. One way to develop a “social presence” at a distance between instructor-facilitator is to provide a student homepage area within a teacher-student only accessible course web site (Palloff et al., 2007). Additionally, students may develop a sense of “social presence” amongst themselves in a similar context. Student profiles can yield carefully controlled information about members of the class as well as photographs or an image that represents them. Furthermore, these profiles may contain links to more personal student web pages that allow peers to form and share a virtual presence with one another and to humanize and promote personal connections amongst each other.
On the first day of class, instructors-facilitators can utilize on line icebreaker activities to introduce one another and foster positive feelings about the subject to be studied. This creates an online environment where students and their facilitator-instructor can interact with one another in a friendly, respectable manner. The cohesive banter will only boost motivation to participate and enjoy their online course experience.
Intrinsic Motivation:
When the enticement to learn is drawn from within an individual, it is referred to as intrinsic motivation. Simply said, we choose to learn about things we find interesting or what we would like to know more about. DeLong and Winter (2002) characterize intrinsic motivators to include, “…fascination with the subject, a sense of its relevance to life and the world, a sense of accomplishment in mastering it, and a sense of calling to it.” (pg. 163) When designing an online course of study, instructors must consider a range of topics and activities that will appeal to the varying interests of their students. Making provisions to promote intrinsic motivation in student learning will require challenging students to manage and control their own learning.
Incorporating course content that draws curiosity and offers choices through a variety of stimulating activities can support intrinsic motivation. Offering choices to students allows for personal preferential decisions, which may then ultimately accompany a sense of ownership and control (Theroux, 1994). Students are more likely to assume responsibility for their learning when they have choices available, rather than subscribing to a set train of thought or doctrine by the instructor-facilitator. An essential part of intrinsic motivation is to understand the varying abilities f the students in the online environment. All students can acquire the same knowledge, but through divergent avenues of acquisition. This is referred to as differentiated instruction.
What options or variations in task or methodology can instructors make available to their students? Theroux (1994) recommends the use of alternative topics (themes or sub-topics students may identify with), process (learning activities embedded with acquired concepts) or product ideas (form of demonstration exhibiting mastery of concepts). Making available choices in instruction, processing and assessment truly diversifies the learning experience. That is, accentuating the talents and interests of students provides more opportunities for ownership and responsibility in learning.
Engaging students in a challenging and thought-provoking context has the potential to spark interest and ignite curiosity. Theroux (1994) urges teachers to “encourage students to take intellectual risks.” (¶ 6) This can be particularly attractive to students that want more from themselves or tend get bored easily. Students need the opportunity to take on new challenging vistas and to be placed in a position of personal control. In terms of educational vehicles for challenging strategies, Lamb (1999) advocates for learner engagement by:
• Appealing to student life experiences
• Applying course content to real-world situations
• Allowing student to varied ways in which to share their understandings (forms of projects)
• Incorporating higher-ordered thinking and interactive features that involve learners in practice, reflective thinking, and problem-solving
These approaches can provide a path leading to creative products that accompany their finds or new understandings as well as the skill of managing their own learning. In challenging students with engaging assignments and tasks, it gives students the opportunity to exercise a power of control and to discover the experience of applying a concerted effort rendering a satisfying success. Having control and investment in ones own learning bestows a high degree of intrinsic motivations. Simply put, there is satisfaction in a job well done.
Conclusion:
Effective planning, design and implementation of motivational strategies can significantly impact the quality of active student learning and participation in distance educational settings. Motivating students is an ongoing challenge for educators. In general, students are motivated in 3 different ways, by rewards, by interest and others by a desire to avoid failure. Thoroux (1994) points out that “any one technique may not be appropriate for all students at the same time nor effective for even one student for extended periods of time.” (¶ 10)
It should be noted that every learner has their own unique set of intrinsically motivating factors. Perhaps Dr. Mancia Anguiita, noted DE learning author (2007), says it best when she says, “Not everyone is intrinsically motivated towards the same subjects or tasks, nor does everything motivate everyone to the same extent; therefore, it is important to stimulate extrinsic motivation.” (pg. 373) Therefore, wise planning will include provisions to establish and maintain both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational strategies in order to meet the varying needs that drive student achievement and participation.
References:
Anguita, Mancia and Baldomero-Fernandez Javier F. (2007,November). Software Optimization for Improving Student Motivation in a Computer Architecture Course. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 50 (4), 373-378. Retrieved July 2, 2009, from IEEE Transactions on Education database
DeLong, Matt., Winter, Dale. Learning to Teaching and Teaching to Learn Mathematics: Resources for Professional Development, Mathematical Association of America, 2002, page 163.
ELearners.com, (2009). Distance Learning FAQ: What are some pros and cons of distance learning? Retrieved July 2, 2009, from ELearners.com Web site: http://www.elearners.com/resources/elearning-faq5.asp
Harris, Robert (1991, March 2). Some Ideas for Motivating Students. Retrieved July 1, 2009, from Virtual Salt Web site: http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm
Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 2, 2009, Web site: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html
Lamb, Annette. Johnson, Larry. Smith, William L. (1999). The Learners: Motivation. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from Teaching and Learning at a Distance. Web site: http://eduscapes.com/distance/the_learners/motivation.htm
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981a). A categorized list of motivation definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 263-291.
Nilson, Linda. Teaching At Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors, 2nd edition, Anker Publishing, 2003, Pages 41-44.
Palloff, Rena M., Pratt, Keith. (2007). Building Online Learning Communities: Effective Strategies for the Virtual Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pages 99-101.
Theroux, P. (1994) Strategies for Enhancing Motivation. Retrieved June 30, 2009, from Enhance Learning with Technology Website: http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/motivation.html
Van Wagner, Kendra (2009). Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Retrieved July 1, 2009, from About.com: Psychology Web site: http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm